Negative Portrayals and their Consequences

Hayes and Black (2003) outlined four components of a discourse of pity –– confinement, hope for rehabilitation, denial of rehabilitation, and reconciliation to confinement. They found that while films had improved over time in regard to disability portrayal, they had been "unable to shed the encasing logic of pity" (para. 3), raising concern that when films constantly evoked feelings of pity toward disabled characters, viewers would then carry these feelings into their interactions with disabled individuals in their lives. Walker (2016), analyzing twenty films released after 2000 that portrayed characters with physical, psychiatric, sensory, or intellectual /developmental disabilities, similarly found in a significant minority of the films themes of pity and degradation, as these characters experienced lack of support and independence, showed suicidal tendencies, engaged in unhealthy coping mechanisms, and experienced negative attitudes from others.

Black and Pretes (2007) identified discrimination or prejudice towards disabled people, or ableism, as a negative outcome of stereotypic media portrayal. Paralleling racism and sexism, ableism creates negative feelings and low self-worth in those being discriminated against. Exploring the intersection of racism and disability discrimination, Agosto (2014), in a critical analysis of movies released from 1994 to 2012, found that stereotypes associated with race and disability created a complex narrative that influenced individual behavior, societal attitudes, and cultural awareness and knowledge of how Black disabled youth fit into society.

Positive Portrayals and their Consequences

Just as inaccurate and stereotypical representations of disability negatively impact societal perceptions and attitudes, realistic portrayals can enact positive change. Media sources can help foster more positive attitudes towards disabled persons (Safran, 2000), and portrayals that more accurately reflect the realities of life with a disability can promote societal inclusion and lessen alienation (Farnall & Smith, 1999).

After viewing films with more positive and accurate portrayals of people with disabilities, viewers were more likely to identify disability discrimination and less likely to express negative feelings when interacting with disabled individuals (Farnall & Smith, 1999; Black & Pretes, 2007). For example, after viewing My Left Foot, a film that portrays the early life of Irish writer and painter Christy Brown, who had cerebral palsy, study participants were significantly more likely to notice discrimination related to educational opportunities. Similarly, viewers of Born on the Fourth of July, a movie following a paralyzed Vietnam veteran, were better at recognizing discrimination related to entry into public spaces and events (Black & Pretes, 2007).

Screen Media Impact on Children and Youth. The impact of positive portrayals was not limited to adults. Orta (2016) found that after viewing a video clip containing a panel of teens with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), teenage study participants were more likely to report, via a psychological questionnaire, positive feelings toward individuals with ASD than did a control group.

Screen media can be an effective tool for teaching about disability (Preston, 2010; Safran, 2000). Using well-chosen films in the classroom can encourage discussion, challenge perceptions (Kennedy & Menten, 2010; Pescosolido, 1990), and create awareness and acceptance of disability. Connor and Bejoian (2006) asserted that using movies in the classroom "can be a small but important step in unlearning pervasive stereotypes and acquiring new and different ways to view human difference" (p. 59). Teachers also may benefit, as their understanding, awareness, and knowledge of disabilities are similarly affected by media portrayals, which in turn may influence their perceptions and expectations of students (Samsel & Perepa, 2013). Specific classroom practices recommended by Connor and Bejoian (2007) designed to encourage reexamination of preconceived notions and expand overall understanding of disability, include use of film to (1) facilitate discussion of disability-related language, (2) illustrate that "different" does not mean better or worse, and (3) allow students to analyze simple stereotypes such as "good guys" and "bad guys."

Connor and Bejoian (2006) argued that while positive representations are undoubtedly helpful in the fight for equality and acceptance, even films with negative representations can be useful. Educators might have students view a film that perpetuates negative stereotypes, then challenge them to critique the movie and discuss what the disability should have looked like on screen. As an example, the 1998 film The Mighty reinforces negative stereotypes, yet can still be an effective educational tool to teach students how to recognize and challenge stereotypical representations of disability (Arndt et al., 2010; Maples et al., 2010). Preston (2010) illustrated this approach in classroom lessons using the film Finding Nemo in which students analyzed how Nemo was treated differently because of his "lucky fin." Preston held that teaching students to critique discriminatory behaviors by non-disabled movie characters toward disabled characters had the potential to change how people with disabilities are treated in society.

Pilot Study

Prior to the current study, the researchers developed and used a rating form, based on two checklists featured in Safran's (2000) work on disability portrayal in movies, to rate the portrayals in twelve recent movies that had major characters with ASD. Ratings were performed by three undergraduate research assistants, including one of the second authors. Movies were rated on a five point Likert scale across seven aspects of positive/realistic disability representation, such as exhibiting a full range of emotions, interacting as an equal, living in the mainstream (holding a job, being a family member, or being a student in a general education class), and being shown in a loving relationship and expressing age-appropriate sexual needs. Movies were also rated for eight aspects of negative or stereotypical disability representation such as being an object of pity or violence, being sinister or evil, having "superhuman" qualities, being laughable or the subject of humor, or being a burden. Raters supplied examples from the movie as evidence supporting each numerical rating and responded to additional narrative questions.

The Current Study

Guided by insights from the pilot study, the researchers refined the rating form, clarifying criteria, eliminating one repetitive item, and adopting a uniform set of characteristics of ASD based on diagnostic criteria outlined in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (APA, 2013). The rating tool (see Appendix) comprised fourteen numerical rating items and three narrative questions. This revised form was used to evaluate portrayals of disability in the twelve selected television series. Ratings were performed by three undergraduate research assistants, including both of the second authors. Table 2 provides information about the raters.

Table 2 Information on Raters

Rater	Student Status	Major	Relevant Academic Background	Experience Related to ASD	Disability Status
1 (co–second author)	Senior undergraduate	English	Coursework in special education	Close relative with ASD diagnosis	Not disabled
2	Senior undergraduate	Human development	Practicum in special education	Some experience working with children with ASD	Not disabled
3 (co–second author)	Senior undergraduate	Integrative Neuroscience	Coursework in special education; psychology coursework on ASD	Extensive experience working with children with ASD	Not disabled

Series were rated on a five point Likert scale for seven aspects of positive/realistic disability representation and seven aspects of negative/stereotypic disability representation. As in the pilot study, raters made comments, supplied examples from the television series as evidence supporting their numerical ratings, and responded to narrative questions. The fourteen items that received numerical ratings referenced non-categorized disability. The three additional questions referenced characteristics of, and specific issues related to ASD, the actor's preparation to play an autistic character, and the rater's overall impression of the portrayal.

Raters completed this task by printing the rating form, making notes as they watched the television series, looking for appearances by the targeted character, and then assigning a rating to each of these fourteen items, along with an example to support their rating. They then responded to the three questions on the second part of the form. In order to answer questions about an actor's preparation to play a character with ASD, they utilized information available on world wide web sites such as the Internet Movie Database (IMDb.com). Raters watched and evaluated varying numbers of shows within each series; in most cases, they based their ratings upon all available seasons, focusing on those episodes that included the character with ASD. Raters reported watching and re-watching segments featuring the targeted character several times. All rating activities took place over a four month period in 2019.

Content Validity of the Rating Tool

Rating items were based on characteristics and stereotypes that have appeared in disability literature for several decades. The original rating form was based on two checklists designed to assist teachers in choosing movies about disability for classroom use and guiding students toward informed and critical viewing (Safran, 2000). Safran's work drew on disability stereotypes, identified by Bogdan and Biklen (1977) in their seminal work on "handicapism," reiterated by Nelson (1994) and Black and Pretes (2007), that cast the disabled individual as pitiful, sinister, superhuman, a burden, maladjusted, a perpetual child, or inevitably segregated.

Positive Portrayals

A positive or realistic portrayal is one that accurately reflects the realities of ASD through the experiences and circumstances surrounding the character. Positive media portrayals meet criteria related to a character's emotions, personality, relationships, role in society, and the level of insight provided by their experiences. Positive portrayals are those depicting characters with complex personalities and a full range of emotions who are not solely defined by their ASD. Specifically, these characters often interact as equals to neurotypical peers, and are contributing members of society who are shown holding a job, being a family member, or being a student in a mainstream educational setting. For example, in NBC's Parenthood, autistic teenager Max becomes middle school Student Council President, promising his peers that he will bring back school vending machines, portraying him not only as a student in a general education setting, but as a member of the school community. Care must be taken, however, to avoid making criteria for "positive portrayals" accessible only to characters with high-functioning autism or otherwise excluding any portrayal of severe disability. Relationships, emotions, and societal integration can take many different forms, and positive portrayals can include those who are in need of more extensive support.

Rather than portraying individuals with ASD as uninterested in loving relationships, characters in a positive portrayal express age-appropriate sexual desires and may seek such relationships, as seen in the Netflix comedy–drama Atypical, in which the audience follows Sam, a major character with ASD, who decides at age eighteen that he should find a girlfriend. Positive portrayals successfully incorporate characters that provide insight into societal barriers faced by those with ASD, such as finding job opportunities, beginning and maintaining friendships, and encountering exclusion and prejudice.

Another type of positive portrayal might feature an individual with ASD as a supporting character, as opposed to revolving all conflict around that person and issues related to autism, supporting the idea that disability need not always be the focus of that role or show. Similarly, a positive portrayal depicts a character with ASD as ordinary in many ways, and not superhuman in abilities or effects on others.

A positive portrayal is also one that makes efforts to more accurately reflect diversity across race, ethnicity, gender identity and sexuality, and socioeconomic status. In particular, the struggle for racial representation is a persistent issue in American TV and film depicting both neurotypical and neurodivergent characters. The White-centric narrative of popular film and TV creates additional barriers regarding the intersectionality of autistic people of color, and therefore isolates them further in society.

Positive Television Portrayals of ASD. The raters found many positive aspects of the shows they reviewed as they evaluated the series for the appearance of characters with complex personalities who show a full range of emotions, interact as equals, live in the mainstream of society, and have loving relationships.

The series Community received high ratings for positive portrayals. In Season One, Episode Three, community college student Abed, a young man with ASD whose father was Palestinian, was one of only two characters analyzed who was a person of color. In this early episode, Abed annoyed his friends when he began filming their interactions closely and frequently. They became frustrated with his apparent refusal to explain his reasons for doing this, and they grew increasingly irritated as they attempted to comprehend his behavior, while Abed remained unable to verbalize his feelings and motivation to them. Later, Abed shared the film he created, in which he drew parallels between his friends' behavior and his parents' past exclamations, "I don't understand you!" and "You're so weird!" His friends and his father then better understood Abed's emotions and perspective, despite his deficits in verbal expression, and gained appreciation of obstacles Abed routinely faced. Following these interactions, Abed's friends felt more connected to him and encouraged his unique version of self-expression. Raters found this episode positive in that communication deficits or differences were portrayed as obstacles that had a solution, and non-disabled peers were shown as capable of evolving understandings.

The PBS animated children's series Arthur included as one of Arthur's friends an anthropomorphic rabbit named Carl who had Asperger syndrome. The rater commented, "Overall, I think this character and his friends' understanding of his disability are effective at explaining common symptoms of ASD to their target audience. Although he is shown as having a photographic memory, extreme intelligence and other somewhat 'super' abilities, for the most part this character does provide insight into some of the barriers a child with ASD may face. Some issues, such as his strict routine, seem a little exaggerated and over the top, but this is to be expected when the target audience of the show is young children." While the rating scale did not differentiate adult and children's media, raters appeared to consider the different audiences in their evaluations.

Portrayals that provide insight into barriers. Recognition of barriers encountered by autistic individuals enhances understanding of disability as a social construct rather than an individual plight. This may provide learning opportunities and support and enlarge viewers' understanding of social models of disability that look at barriers present in the environment around an individual and see those barriers as the source of disability, in contrast to a medical model which views disability as an inherent characteristic of an individual.

Raters looked for examples of portrayals that provided insight into societal barriers faced by autistic individuals. Widely varied shows such as Netflix' series Atypical and the children's series Pablo provided insight into obstacles experienced by characters with ASD by portraying real-world problems that affect individuals of varying age groups. Atypical, which tells the story of autistic eighteen year old Sam and his family, was rated five out of five for providing insight into societal barriers. Although Sam encountered obstacles at school, he was depicted as having a strong support system of people who helped advocate with and for him. Sam's hypersensitivity to sensory input prevented him from attending dances with his neurotypical peers, causing him to feel isolated from his classmates. Sam's mother then organized a "silent dance" at his school, where all students wore noise-canceling headphones, enabling Sam to participate despite his sensitivity to the loud noises typical of a school dance. Raters believed this episode would allow the audience to gain perspective regarding a trait of ASD that could potentially restrict individuals from certain experiences and to view an inclusive response.

The children's series Pablo followed the adventures of the title character, a five year old autistic boy, and his imaginary anthropomorphized animal friends who were shown in animated sequences. Assigning a rating of five out of five, the rater commented on the series' "great representation of societal barriers that a child with ASD might experience. His animal friends in his imagination also display symptoms of ASD such as sensitivity to sounds and smells, speech delays, nervousness, difficulty with social cues, stimming, and echolalia."

The autistic character in the mainstream. Television series were rated positively for portraying autistic characters in mainstream society interacting with neurotypical peers, holding a job, functioning as a family member, or being a student in an inclusive educational setting. As in other rating criteria, the availability of these experiences appeared to vary with the severity of disability or manifestation on the autism spectrum. Raters were expected, though not provided with specific guidance, to avoid conflating the full spectrum of autism with high-functioning autism, and to interpret rating criteria in ways that did not exclude individuals at the lower extreme of the autism spectrum or penalize a TV series for portraying such individuals. For example, employment, independent living, and inclusive educational opportunities might take different forms, but the expectation that portrayals be inclusive, rather than isolating or excluding, remained.

Sesame Street received generally high ratings, including five out of five for portraying a character with ASD as living and participating in mainstream society. Julia, a Muppet character with ASD, was depicted as "just like everyone else," (rater comment) yet with her own differences and needs. This was viewed as a positive portrayal in this children's show. In one episode, when asked what "autism" is, Big Bird began his response, "Well, for Julia, it means…," suggesting that ASD, as a spectrum disorder, manifests differently for each individual, an important insight for the series' target audience of young children for whom this may be their first introduction to ASD.

Negative Portrayals

In opposition to a positive portrayal, a negative media portrayal is one that fails to convey appropriate knowledge of autism and perpetuates associated stereotypes. This may include featuring characters who evoke feelings of pity in audience members. Characters in poor portrayals may be represented as burdensome or living separated from mainstream society, in a manner that suggests this as an inevitable consequence of their disability, rather than as a result of societal barriers or lack of support. It is also common for negative portrayals to incite humor at the expense of these characters, or represent the character as the object of physical or verbal violence. Finally, these characters may possess superhuman qualities, as stereotypes and misinformation about autism create a persona that is heroic, godlike, or supernatural, imagery that dehumanizes autistic individuals just as excessively pitiful imagery can, as it fails to attribute the full range of human qualities and challenges to the character, and results in plots that focus on "overcoming" disability to the exclusion of everything else.

Negative Stereotypes Observed in Television Portrayals of ASD. Although ten of the twelve series received scores that were positive overall, every series included numerous negative and stereotypical portrayals. We provide more details and examples in this section than the above section that details positive portrayals, believing that awareness of and ability to identify stereotypes is necessary to challenge perceptions. Raters evaluated TV series for portrayals of autistic characters as people who were a burden, an object of pity, superhuman, laughable, the object of violence, evil, or separated from mainstream society, stereotypes that have appeared in screen media for decades (Bogdan et al., 1982; Norden, 1994; Safran, 1998a; 1998b) and were found to be present in recent small screen productions. Raters also identified in their narrative evaluations some television series' use of disability as a tool for plot advancement.

The autistic character as a burden. This stereotyped depiction was prominent in the series Touch, Claws, and Atypical, as the character with ASD in each series was shown causing added stress and obstacles to the lives of loved ones. This was seen, for example, in adolescent characters who created marital conflict as parents struggled to understand or care for their child, or in adult characters who disrupted their workplace or social environment. Having a child with ASD certainly impacts families' lives including housekeeping, finances, and emotional and mental health of parents; when these are the dominant or only images the viewer sees, with the autistic child as the sole burden or cause and as an appropriate target of blame for these stresses, this is a negative representation. When ASD in children is portrayed as the inevitable cause of marital strain, it reinforces attitudes that may put children with ASD in danger in real life.

The ABC drama Touch received a high negative rating for portraying the target character as a burden. Jake, a non-verbal young boy with ASD, was portrayed as a burden on his father. Jake was able to predict future events by communicating through number sequences, which then tasked his father with figuring out how to interpret the numbers and prevent traumatic events from occurring. In the series pilot episode, Jake disappeared, and his father was shown driving all around town looking for him. He finally found him on top of a cell tower, and the firefighters assisting in the rescue told Jake's father that he needed to "keep that kid in a cage." In this scene, Jake is represented as an embodiment of an extreme state of emergency. This depiction of ASD is unsettling as it portrays disability as inevitably perilous, adding strain and anxiety for Jake's family.

The crime comedy–drama Claws was rated four out of five in portraying Dean, a Black autistic character and one of only two people of color among the characters analyzed, as a burden to others, notably to his sister Desna. The rater described this as an overriding theme of the series, commenting that Dean "is mostly portrayed as a burden to his family members above all else," and that this was exaggerated to appear humorous to the audience. Dean was fully reliant on his sister, who took care of him by paying rent, doing his laundry, cooking, and acting as his source of emotional support, while he was rarely shown offering her support of any kind. This was dramatized when Desna found herself in dangerous and stressful situations related to drugs and other illegal activities, and Dean's needs were depicted as an additional stressor.

Atypical was rated two out of five for Sam, an autistic character, being portrayed as burdensome. While this rating indicates that being a burden was not a dominant plot device, it did occur. In one episode, Sam's sister Casey stated that he "took up too much space," and pointed out that she received less parental attention because of the "space" he consumed. In addition, his parents' marital struggles were depicted as primarily caused by the stress of understanding Sam's different needs. In Season Two Episode Eight, Sam lost his portfolio. The rater observed that Sam's emotions were dramatized through yelling, showing extreme anger, screaming at Casey, and blaming her for losing his portfolio. She then had to miss an important track practice to help him find the portfolio, and Sam's parents were visibly upset, thus casting Sam as a burden on others in his family.

The autistic character as an object of pity. The discourse of pity (Hayes & Black, 2003) is a common media theme, depicting characters with disabilities as evoking or deserving pity. Series in which raters observed characters with ASD portrayed as pitiful included Rick and Morty, The Good Doctor, and Parenthood. Characters with ASD were deemed pitiable when they were portrayed as the object of violence, were bullied, or struggled with social interactions and relationships. None of the series received high negative ratings in this area, but the stereotype was present nevertheless.

Parenthood scored two out of five for portraying a character with ASD as pitiable. Many of the difficulties Max faced were attributed to deficits in nonverbal communication and subsequent difficult social interactions. Max was shown being bullied by his peers at school and at baseball practice, as well as being misunderstood by his parents. The animated science fiction comedy Rick and Morty also scored two out of five for portraying a character with ASD as pitiable. In Season Two Episode Ten, the rater noted feeling extreme pity for Rick when he had an emotional breakdown after getting into an argument with family about how much stress he caused. Rick's response was to direct a deprecating profane comment at himself and to resolve never to let his guard down again. Rick was then shown drinking heavily to cope with the stress of the confrontation.

The ABC drama The Good Doctor was rated two out of five for portraying the target character as pitiable. Throughout the series, Dr. Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with ASD and savant syndrome, was called names such as "freak" and "weirdo." Flashbacks from his childhood showed Shaun growing up in a chaotic household. The rater noted that the audience was likely to feel pity when viewing flashbacks of Shaun and his brother running away from their home, living in an abandoned bus, and begging strangers for money. In adulthood, Shaun was shown experiencing hardship as his coworkers routinely underestimated his ability as a surgeon, and the supervising surgeon treated him as a child.

The autistic character as superhuman. This stereotype describes characters who are depicted as having traits such as preternatural patience, unending capacity for forgiveness, or extreme perseverance despite seemingly inevitable defeat. Superhuman portrayals are usually paired with plots about an individual "overcoming" disability, plots that locate disability entirely within the individual (in keeping with a medical model of disability), and ignore societal barriers that are disabling. While appearing well-intentioned, superhuman imagery dehumanizes autistic individuals just as any stereotyped imagery does. Furthermore, this imagery devalues unexceptional autistic, as well as non-autistic, characters who provide less plot value or intrigue.

In media portraying ASD, savant abilities were often exaggerated and portrayed as superhuman traits. Furthermore, the raters found that even the intense special interests that are a common characteristic of individuals with ASD were portrayed as superhuman abilities. They identified these "superhuman" portrayals as occurring most prominently in Touch and The Good Doctor.

Touch was rated five out of five for portraying a character with ASD as superhuman in their abilities and effect on others. Jake's "superpower" was his ability to predict future events by generating number sequences which this nonverbal character then communicated to others. In the previously described cell tower incident, Jake climbed the tower and set off the security alarm at 3:18 p.m. Throughout the remainder of the episode, Jake wrote down several other number sequences. Taken together, interpretation of these numbers then enabled his father to prevent disastrous events from occurring.

The Good Doctor was rated four out of five in portraying a character with ASD as superhuman. The rater commented that the show overall did a fairly good job of "portraying a high functioning individual who is on the autism spectrum," however, "sensationalizing and overdramatizing Shaun's memory and problem solving abilities" … "often came across as stereotypical." In the show's pilot episode, Shaun was introduced as having savant syndrome with special abilities and advanced knowledge about medicine that no other doctor had. In a dramatic scene, Shaun encountered a young boy who had suffered a traumatic wound from a piece of broken glass. Stealing a knife needed for the removal of this glass from a nearby hospital, he then performed a miraculously life–saving procedure right on the sidewalk.

The autistic character as the object of humor. While humor involving disabled characters does not always promote stereotyping and can be positive (Smith & Sapon-Shevin, 2008), this rating item referred to characters with ASD being portrayed as laughable or the object of humor. Oftentimes this was a reaction to the character's quirky behavior, lack of understanding of social cues, or speech habits. The raters observed in the series Bob's Burgers and Community scenes that placed characters with ASD in humorous situations based on their difficulties in social interactions, made humorous by the fact that the character was unaware of the difficulty. Some of the shows rated were comedy series, so humor is an expected and necessary component, but in those cases, raters still found traits of ASD exaggerated for comedic purposes at that character's expense.

The animated situation comedy Bob's Burgers was rated three out of five for portraying a character with ASD as laughable. In Season Three Episode Eleven, Tina, the restaurant owner's daughter, offered to go to a nude beach with her mother, not realizing how potentially awkward this social situation could be for them. While the rater noted that it is important to keep in mind that Bob's Burgers is a comedy, this scene became more humorous as Tina's social deficits increased the awkwardness of the situation. Throughout the series, Tina was deemed laughable as she navigated similar awkward situations. In addition, Tina's utterances were deployed for comedic purposes. Tina would often groan or sigh, and this was portrayed as awkwardly humorous, when in actuality it appeared to be Tina's way of nonverbally communicating her discomfort in certain situations.

Community was rated two out of five for portraying a character with ASD as an object of humor. Abed's deficits in nonverbal communication and social reciprocity led to amusing interactions with his friends. In Season One Episode Four, his friend Annie asked Abed to do her a favor, as her "very good friend." To this, Abed replied "Well, I didn't realize we were really good friends. I figured we were more like Chandler and Phoebe [referring to the popular situation comedy Friends]; they never really had stories together…Sure, I'll do it, Chandler." Here, Abed found similarities between one of his favorite television series and his relationship with Annie, however, his line was humorous to the audience because it was silly and awkward. Abed did not realize he was being rude by failing to realize that they were good friends, portraying him as amusing and an unknowing source of humor.

Raters identified another facet of this stereotype in the depiction of characters with ASD as robotic or overly monotonal. These characters spoke in an exaggerated monotone voice or failed to display facial expressions appropriate to the situation. Raters identified Tina in Bob's Burgers, Shaun Murphy in The Good Doctor, and Abed in Community as speaking in a flat tone and rarely changing facial expressions. In The Good Doctor, the rater noted that coworkers avoided socializing with Shaun, finding it awkward because of his robotic demeanor. In Community, Abed's monotone voice was a staple of his character, and in Season One Episode Sixteen he remarked, "I was trying to be sarcastic, but it didn't come out." Lack of inflection and facial expression is in fact a characteristic of autism identified in the DSM-5; on screen, it appeared to raters to be exaggerated to add humor.

The autistic character as the object of violence. It is an unfortunate fact that autistic individuals may encounter bullying or mistreatment; what makes a television portrayal potentially negative is not that it represents a hard truth, but how it is presented, the response by the victim and bystanders, how the perpetrator is characterized, and how frequently this theme occurs. Television series that received high negative ratings for portraying characters with ASD as the object of violence were Atypical, Rick and Morty, and The Good Doctor. In Atypical, Sam makes awkward or irrelevant comments that other students then make fun of. At times this teasing and bullying turns physically violent, and Sam is shoved or punched. Similarly, The Good Doctor includes flashbacks of Shaun's childhood that reveal physical abuse by his father and violent bullying at school.

Rick and Morty, rated three out of five, is a cartoon, and while violence might be expected to be prevalent in such a series, Rick was portrayed as the object of violence in almost every episode, whether in a shootout, a physical altercation with another character, or even a near-death experience. Furthering this portrayal was Rick's alcoholism and self-isolation, which left him defenseless in many of these situations.

The autistic character as sinister or evil. This stereotype was identified in Rick and Morty. Rick's deficits in social interactions and nonverbal communication were exaggerated through his cynicism and robotic persona. Rick was a major criminal on an intergalactic watch list for several episodes because of the violence and chaos that he perpetrated through his adventures. The rater commented that while she enjoyed the show, "looking at it from the lens of its portrayal of an individual on the spectrum I think it does a poor job."

The autistic character as segregated from mainstream society. This stereotypic portrayal refers to characters with ASD shown as living separated from society, lacking active or supportive family and friends, not having a job, not attending school, or not going out in public independently. This situation is presented as the inevitable and reasonable consequence of disability, rather than simply a need for fewer barriers or more supports. This was apparent in Claws, Rick and Morty, and Pablo, all rated three out of five.

In the animated series Rick and Morty, Rick lived in his daughter's home, but was shown isolating himself to work on science experiments or explore other dimensions. A more subtle representation was noted in Pablo, who was surrounded by imaginary animal friends, and was shown interacting with his mother but never with children his own age.

Claws portrayed Dean as an adult man who lived with his older sister and needed constant care and supervision. Dean was rarely shown leaving the house by himself, and he did not do any shopping or chores for the household. He did not have a job, friends, or family members in his life other than his sister. As the only Black autistic character in the television series studied, the intersectionality of Dean's autistic character being segregated from mainstream society and his being a person of color makes his portrayal especially negative. Given the pervasive stereotypes surrounding Black Americans and people with ASD in isolation, the convergence of the two in media requires special care and attention so as to not perpetuate stereotypes with their negative and dangerous consequences.

The autistic character as a plot advancing device. Though not a numerically rated item, raters identified in their narrative evaluations some television series' use of characters with ASD as tools to further the plot or introduce obstacles that the plot then revolved around, a feature of disability portrayals identified in film by Bogdan and colleagues (1982) and in autism portrayals by Hannum (2010) and Mitchell and Snyder (2014). Characters with ASD in popular television series appeared to serve primarily to advance the plot on behalf of nondisabled protagonists, rather than appearing as independent characters with agency. The A Word, Atypical, and Touch especially used characters as devices in service of plotlines concerning their family members.

After viewing Touch, the rater noted that "Jake's 'autism' only serves the purpose of complicating the father's life." Throughout this dramatic mystery series, widowed father Martin faced numerous obstacles as a result of his son's autism. Martin struggled to understand and tend to Jake's needs, moved from job to job, and traveled to meet with a professor who claimed to handle cases like Jake's. These events spiraled into a supernatural plot sequence where Jake was discovered to have special powers, leading Martin to follow along on Jake's adventures and eventually to flee the city to protect Jake.

Similarly, the rater of The A Word noted that the plot primarily involved perspectives of others in response to a character's ASD, commenting that the show "focuses more on the family coping with the realization that their son has a disability." In this series, Joe's actions were a tool to create novel obstacles or quickly resolve old ones. For example, Joe's diagnosis introduced marital strain for his parents, and this conflict persisted across seasons, leading up to his father's plan to leave his mother. A similar plot unfolded in Atypical, which also netted a rater comment that the series used Sam as an antagonist to advance plotlines focused on his parents. Sam's ASD created marital stress for his parents, leading to an affair that served as a dramatic twist in the Season One finale.

Plots such as marital strain due to parenting a child with ASD may be realistic; the issue emerges when a series derives much of its plot this way without the perspective of the autistic character. Just as these characters should be portrayed as complex human beings with and without issues related to ASD, portrayal of families of those with ASD should be portrayed with similar complexity and dimension. Persistently revolving conflict around a character's ASD reinforces negative stereotypes and fosters the idea that living with ASD is one-dimensionally negative.

Prevalence of Male and Female Autistic Characters on Television

While the series ratings considered each media source individually, we noted that ten of the twelve target characters were male and two were female, a 5:1 ratio. In fact, the DSM-5 currently places that ratio at 4:1 (APA, 2013), and in a recent meta-analysis of prevalence studies, Loomes et al. (2017) found an overall ratio of 3:1, with wide variability (8:1 to 2:1) in studies reviewed, noting diagnostic gender bias. Thus we found this portrayal of the individual with autism as typically male to be partially reality-based but overall exaggerated or over-generalized – the very definition of stereotype.

Representation of Race and Ethnicity of Autistic Characters on Television

Of the twelve target characters, two were people of color, both male. Dean, the brother of the nail salon owner in Claws, was the only Black autistic character. Abed, a college student in Community, had a Palestinian father and Polish-American mother. The ethnicity of autistic puppet, animal, or cartoon characters in Sesame Street, Rick and Morty, Bob's Burgers, Arthur, and Pablo may be less clear than in series using live actors, but reviewers identified all these characters as white. None of the target characters were Latinx.

U.S. Census figures list the percentage of the non-Hispanic white population at 59.3% and the Black/African American population as 13.6%. Hispanic/Latino population is listed as 18.9% (US Census Bureau, 2021). White children are diagnosed with autism at a higher rate than Black (ratio is 1.1:1) or Latinx children (ratio is 1.2:1) (Aylward et al., 2021). Based on population statistics, we might expect a ratio of 4:1White to Black autistic TV characters, rather than the 11:1 in our actual sample. Including both characters of color in our sample, a 5:1 ratio results. Statistics on autism prevalence in U. S. populations of Middle Eastern descent are lacking, and census practices make it difficult to disaggregate relevant population statistics, so it is challenging to assess the degree of underrepresentation. Aylward et al.'s (2021) research noted that Black and Latinx children with ASD are typically diagnosed later, underserved, and segregated at higher rates, a disturbing fact in view of their underrepresentation in screen media.