Population and sample

In Sweden there are a total 320 local Swedish Public Employment Service offices (Sw. Arbetsförmedlingen) where approximately 6,175 employment officers work (Fölster & Sahlén 2010). The sample consists of employment officers working at two different local offices in two different municipalities: one large (by Swedish standards) municipality, with 137,000 inhabitants, and one medium-sized municipality with 56,000 inhabitants (Statistics Sweden 2013). Altogether eight officers participated, four from each type of municipality. Five of the participants were women and three were men. All respondents were between 31 and 47 years of age. All had studied at college or university level. One had taken diverse courses without earning a degree, while the other seven had different degrees: two officers had completed a behavioral science program, one had a teaching credential, one had a degree in political science, one had a bachelor's degree, and one had degrees in both law and social work. At the time of the study, all eight were working full-time with various forms of unemployment assistance (including wage subsidies, employment training, trainee positions) for persons with disabilities. No other background information (e.g. concerning ethnicity) about the employment officers was collected.

The participants were selected through purposive sampling. Contact was made with the manager of the two employment agencies in the two municipalities. The managers suggested employees with experience of working with persons with disabilities. The managers then provided the researchers with contact details for the officers who showed an interest in the study. The aim of the study was presented and partly explained to both to the managers and the employment officers. Both before and during the interviews it was made clear that the study aimed at investigating employment officers' assessments of the presented cases, without explicitly mentioning the researchers' interest in how their assessments reflected possible biases or stereotypes regarding disability, ethnicity and gender.

The design, contents, and use of the vignette

The vignette used in the study is based on knowledge gained from previous studies on the social situation of persons with disabilities, in particular with regard to employment difficulties (see e.g. Statistics Sweden 2009b; Dag 2006; Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare 1999; Russell 1998; Gustavsson 1998). The living situation of the person in the vignette was designed to resemble as closely as possible an authentic situation that a person with physical disabilities might face. The vignette was also designed to be short (200 words), easy to read, and realistic, as well as to have a logical structure. The vignette contained the following information:

X is 23 years old. Five years ago s/he was in a car accident where s/he collided head-on with another car. S/he was injured so severely that that s/he became a wheelchair user after the accident. This injury has reduced his/her ability to look for a job on his/her own. X dropped out of high school because of the injury and doesn't believe s/he is capable of studying for a high school equivalency certificate. It is difficult for him/her to manage on his/her own outside of the home. The accident has not however affected his/her intellectual capacity. Now that X lives on his/her own and is no longer surrounded by family s/he sometimes feels lonely. The fact that s/he has lost contact with old friends feels more tangible now, and because the injury makes it hard for him/her to meet new people s/he is worried about becoming even more isolated. X also lacks workmates because s/he is unemployed. S/he thinks it is important to have a job, and is actively looking for one, both through the employment services and through his/her own efforts; that is to say, s/he tries to take independent contact with employers who have advertised job openings in the social services listings. X has asked about possibilities to work from home, and would prefer to work part-time.

The vignette was employed in a 2x2 design. This means that the vignette consisted of four different versions. The case presented in the vignette referred to a person living in Sweden and was varied in terms of whether the person's name implied a female or male gender and whether it implied Swedish or a foreign country of birth. Swedish birth was represented by the names Mats (male) and Lisa (female) and foreign birth was represented by the names Reza (male) and Leila (female). In the vignettes the country of birth of Mats and Lisa was not mentioned. The intention behind this was that the respondents should assume that they were born in Sweden, since the study concerned Swedish conditions and both of these names are typically Swedish. In the case of Reza and Leila, it was mentioned in the text that they were born in a foreign country, namely Iran. The choice of foreign names and country of birth was done in order to stimulate ideas about people with a different cultural background than a narrowly European one (and to imply having a background in the Middle East).

In presenting the results, the respondents who assessed the Swedish applicants are designated as Swedish Female 1 or 2 and Swedish Male 1 or 2. Those who assessed the applicants with foreign country of birth are designated Foreign Female 1 or 2 and Foreign Male 1 or 2.

Interview guide and procedure

The first seven questions in the interview guide concerned the interviewees' background. General questions concerning the situation for a person with a physical disability then followed. The answers to these questions are not included in this article. The majority of questions concerned how the respondents assessed the situation for the person in the vignette. These questions, which are included in the current study, concerned the employment officer's assessment of the client's capacity to handle a job, the client's effort and motivation to find a job, the client's capacity to personally find and keep a job, and the jobs or occupations considered suitable for the client.

The study was carried out at the respondents' places of work. In both cities all four versions of the vignette were used. Which version of the vignette was given to which of the four employment officers in each city was selected randomly. The employment officers were interviewed after they had read through the vignette. All interviews lasted 45—60 minutes and were digitally recorded.

Analysis

The analysis was performed using conventional content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon 2005). Transcriptions of the interviews were read through in their entirety, and those parts of the interviews that could be sorted under the main themes of the study were categorized. The research questions of the study formed the basis for the categorization of themes and the material was categorized on the basis of the three dimensions: disability, ethnicity and gender. After doing the initial categorizations the data was reduced by employing meaning condensation to construct the categories described in the results section (Kvale 1996). The first author was responsible for the initial coding and data reduction. The codings were then compared, discussed, and further refined at multiple joint data sessions with the second author.

Validity and reliability

The vignette was based on findings from previous studies of the living situation for people with disabilities and their employment difficulties. This made the story realistic, which increases the study's validity (see Jergeby 1999). The validity of the instrument was also improved by testing the vignette on an employment officer who works with persons with disabilities. Possible ambiguities mentioned by the test person were corrected in the vignette narrative as well as in the interview guide. To further ensure the validity, investigator triangulation (meaning joint coding of the material, as described above) was employed. Fellow researchers (in social work) have also reviewed the methodological approach and analytical instruments at a seminar held during the research process.

The cases were designed to be relatively short, easy to understand, and logical, which has enhanced reliability. A further factor enhancing the reliability of the study is that using a vignette method gave the interviews a more uniform structure than otherwise might be the case in qualitative interviews. Furthermore, all the interviews were conducted by the same person (one of the authors). This also contributed to improving the reliability. All interviews proceeded in a similar manner and none of the interviewed persons asked any specific questions about the data mentioned in the vignette, or the people who appeared in them.

Female and male with foreign country of birth

All four officers evaluating the cases with foreign country of birth assess the person's motivation to work to be lower than those of Swedish birth.

I think that the desire and motivation do exist, but I think this is a person who's become rather timid and disheartened by what's happened. She's had it [the injury] for five years now. Been physical disabled for five years because of this, and dropped out of high school, and fallen behind. I believe the drive exists, but what we have is a case of not believing in one's ability. (Foreign female 1)

I think that his motivation and desire are rather low at the moment. He lacks motivation, he lacks the drive, so it's low at present. (Foreign male 2)

I don't know anything about that either… she's becoming isolated. She may be depressed. Perhaps she needs to work through the crisis; she's 23 years old and in a wheelchair. She might have a great deal of motivation, but she's depressed. So it might also be difficult for her to make new contacts. Sure, she's motivated, I think so, but she's unhappy. (Foreign female 2)

As can be seen in the excerpts above, the employment officers assessing the cases of foreign born applicants focus more on the person's disability and less on his or her desire and efforts to get a job. The employment officer Foreign Male 1 says, for example, "I believe this person needs help and support to get out," without mentioning the person's personal motivation. None of the officers pays attention to the fact that the person is actually looking for and wants to find a job. For instance, the employment officer evaluating the case with a foreign female (see Foreign Female 1, above) claims to believe that the person is motivated, yet nevertheless describes the person as "timid and disheartened" as a result of the car accident she was involved in. One of the other officers (see Foreign Male 2, above) does not believe the person to be motivated at all. Yet another of the officers (see Foreign Female 2, above) views the person in the case as depressed and isolated, but at the same time seems to have at least some faith in her motivation. However, despite this she believes that the applicant must get over her depression before she will be able to return to work.

Swedish female and male

In contrast to the case presented above, the data show that all four officers who assessed the cases with the Swedish male or female assessed the person to have desire and motivation to work. In other words, they emphasize the person's actions and efforts to find a job.

Yes, it's quite high, I think so… I definitely think she has a strong desire and motivation, but even more fear. That's what I think. (Swedish female 1)

Yes, but she's done what she believes is right… asked about the possibility to work from home. That is somehow… well it indicates a certain motivation anyhow. (Swedish female 2)

It's quite large, or middling, because he's actively searching. He's searching ads and employers, so he's motivated. He doesn't need anyone to provide extra support… it says he's actively looking. He's using the job center and making his own efforts, and that shows desire and that he's motivated. (Swedish male 2)

As the excerpts show, the employment officers evaluating cases with a Swedish applicant focus on the person's own efforts when assessing his or her motivation and desire to work. One of the officers (see Swedish Female 1, above) says that the person's level of motivation is quite high. Another officer (see Swedish Female 2, above) highlights the person's wish to work from home, judging that to be a sign of motivation. Yet another (see Swedish Male 2, above) highlights the person's efforts to find a job. The respondent justifies this with the fact that the person is in contact with the job center and contacts employers to find work. These actions seem to be taken as evidence of motivation and desire to work. The fourth officer (Swedish Male 1) says that the person is certainly doing her/his best and "it is difficult to question the person's motivation."

Female and male with foreign country of birth

All respondents assessing the cases with foreign-born applicants, regardless of the gender, believe that the applicant is not making sufficient efforts to find a job. In fact, none of the four officers assessing the cases even mentions that the person is making an effort and instead focuses on potential personal barriers for the persons breaking into the labor market. This type of assessment of persons with foreign country of birth can be exemplified by the respondent in the excerpt Foreign Female 1, below, who believes that the female job seeker needs to make more of an effort to find a job.

I believe she could try harder, so to speak, to find a job. (Foreign female 1)

The officer Foreign Female 1 also says that society "pampers" persons with physical disabilities, causing them to become somewhat "lazy". The respondent also associates the person's wishing to work from home with laziness. Another respondent (see the excerpt Foreign Female 2, below) also does not view the applicant in question as looking for a job. This employment officer explains his or her assessment by saying that the person in question is isolating herself and needs to meet a social worker to break her isolation. In connection with this, the same officer continues, saying:

I fail to see how she can be looking [for a job]. (Foreign female 2)

Swedish female and male

Unlike how the efforts of the individuals are assessed by respondents when the job seeker is a woman or man with foreign country of birth, the employment officers assessing the cases with the Swedish man or a women are satisfied with his or her efforts to find a job. This applies regardless of the gender of the person in the vignette, and can be exemplified by the following excerpt:

Yes, she's registered with us. She's trying to get in touch with employers on her own. She can consider the option to work from home… yes, I think so. She's been doing the right things. She's making an effort, I think so. (Swedish female 2)

From the above excerpt (see Swedish female 2) it can be seen that the respondent considers the person to be making an adequate effort to find a job. The respondent conveys this by saying that she has "done the right things" and "made an effort". The answers also suggest that the respondent in this case does not consider the person's wish to find a job that can be performed from home a sign of low desire to find employment. This is in contrast to how the female job seeker with a foreign country of birth (Foreign female 1) in the previous excerpt is assessed.

The respondent in the case Swedish Male 2 also considers the male job seeker to be making adequate efforts to find a job.

He has never worked. He didn't even finish high school, but he is actively looking for a job anyway, both at the job center and through his contacts, by making phone calls; and he calls employers and searches ads. I consider him active. (Swedish male 2)

As indicated by the above excerpt, the respondent (Swedish Male 2) assesses the person in the vignette as making an effort both by taking advantage of the help and support available at the job center and by taking personal contact with different employers.

Female and male with foreign country of birth

The interviews show that all the officers who assess the applicants with a foreign country of birth emphasize the importance of interventions such as work capacity assessments, tailored activities, work training, motivational activities, and wage subsidies. This is illustrated by the assessments made by the respondents (see the excerpts below).

Internships are a way to get a foot in the door, to get a discussion going about the possibility of being hired, and then about support and assistance. So you start by just going in, and if it's not enough you make adjustments with wage subsidies. (Foreign male 1)

What's missing here, above all, are activities at a very basic level. Tailored activities, motivational activities, and preparatory work training; that this person, during work training, it's like a trial, you try out this job, and the employer receives additional compensation, that is to say, support in the form of a personal assistant or a subsidy. (Foreign male 2)

It had to make an assessment when you don't know more than this. An internship could definitely be a good thing. (Foreign female 1)

A work capacity assessment is what I would recommend in that case, to test what she can and can't manage. (Foreign female 2)

These excerpts clearly show that the employment officers consider a number of concrete interventions, which could be interpreted as activities at a basic level, rather than suggesting further education to help a foreign born person enter the job market.

Swedish female and male

Unlike those who assess the applicants with a foreign country of birth, the officers asked to suggest a suitable intervention for the Swedish man and woman all recommend some form of education, for example completing high school, or some form of vocational training, as the most urgent interventions.

I think she needs to finish high school first. That's outside our area, but I'm sure we can contribute somehow. After that, I think that an internship, assistive devices, a personal assistant, wage subsidy, and a work-program position are the things that could be in line for her. Job-market orientation, work training, or sheltered employment are things I wouldn't recommend. (Swedish female 1)

Job-market orientation to get her on the job track. And she doesn't have to only take the job-market orientation. There are more training courses in other places. (Swedish female 2)

I think it has to do with the person, what kind of attitude he has, and what kind of person he is, and things like that. Like with everyone else. But then, of course, his physical disability is an obstacle; it creates extra problems. Finding work, it's tough. He has to get more education and live up to employers' demands.

Okay, he has no education… so we send the person for training, and afterwards we can look at an internship at a workplace. And during the internship he can receive support for assistive devices. (Swedish male 2)

As can be seen in the above excerpts, the employment officers who were asked to assess the job seekers born in Sweden tended to a greater degree to focus on education or training as an initial intervention.

Female and male with foreign country of birth

The interviews show that officers assessing the applicants with a foreign country of birth recommend various occupations that do not require any form of higher education.

Heavy warehouse work might not be optimal for him. Instead something to do with clerical work within an association or a non-profit organization [would be more suitable]. (Foreign male 1)

In general I think, it depends on where her interests lie, what she's interested in and so on, but she definitely ought to be able to do office work, administrative work or work in service occupations. I think it depends a lot on how severe, what kind of physical disability it is, of course. I think there'd be problems on a construction site, for example, or with heavier jobs. That wouldn't be possible. (Foreign female 1)

As can be seen in the excerpts above, the officers assessing foreign born applicants suggest occupations that do not require any further education (office work, administrative work, work in service occupations or in non-profit organization).

Swedish female and male

Unlike the assessments of applicants with foreign country of birth, the employment officers who assess the Swedish female emphasize above all the importance of education. According to them, completing high school can lead to higher education.

Of course there are a number of occupations she won't be able to handle because she's confined to a wheelchair, but if she keeps studying she could have any professional occupation at all, anything from medical school to engineering, or whatever. (Swedish female 1)

The above excerpt makes it clear that the officer who is asked to assess the case (Swedish female 1) stresses the importance of education, and believes that this could open the door, as the officer puts it, to "any professional occupation at all".

The employment officers who assessed the Swedish male (Swedish Male 1 below), like those who assessed the ones with foreign country of birth, also gave recommendations for suitable occupations and did not mention education as a suitable preparation for the labor market.

It could be… he's wheelchair-bound, so it could be a job as a programmer or software developer, administration. What else can one say, well, a job that doesn't require him to move around freely. (Swedish male 1)

As can be seen in the excerpt, the employment officers who assessed the Swedish man recommend two occupations that usually offer a good salary and in some instances require a college degree ("programmer" or "software developer"), but also mention "administration" which can be interpreted as such less demanding tasks as simple office work involves. As already mentioned, this is in contrast to officers assessing the cases with applicants born in a foreign country, who instead only suggest occupations that do not require higher education.

Swedish male, foreign female and male

The results clearly show that officers who assess the individuals with a foreign country of birth consider them to have little chance of finding and keeping a job. These officers emphasize that public assistance and support, for example from the job center, can improve their possibility of finding work. The officers Swedish Male 1 and Foreign Female 1 both stress the importance of support from above all the job center, to enable the applicant to both find and keep a job.

The important thing is for him to get the prerequisites for finding a job. For a person in a wheelchair, there are unfortunately many, many obstacles in society. You need to try to make the most of it, improve his chances. You can do that through various interventions from the job center. (Swedish male 1)

I think they're not very good, actually. I think her chances are not good to find a job on her own. I'm sure she could find a job if she received public assistance and support. She needs help from society, to be able to find and keep a job. So that's what I think, to find a job and keep it, a job. She could do it. She could also support herself if she found a job and earned a salary, and then the social side of it would somehow [also get better], with friends and family and acquaintances. (Foreign female 1)

Swedish female

The respondents who assess the vignette with the Swedish female, unlike those who assess the Swedish male or the man and woman with foreign country of birth, stress the importance of education in finding and keeping a job.

I actually think she could do well if she completes high school, and maybe goes on to further studies. Gets a handle on things that she undoubtedly would have taken care of if she hadn't been injured. So therefore I definitely believe she could find a job and keep a job just fine. (Swedish female 1)

As the above excerpt shows, the employment officer who assesses the Swedish female is optimistic about the female applicant, and ascribes a high value to education, emphasizing its significance for how well the person will manage in society. During the conversation, the officer Swedish Female 1 is particularly anxious to stress the importance of studies. The officer says, for example, that if the applicant gets her high school diploma and goes on to higher studies, then she will have good chances of finding and retaining a job.

Limitations

In total only eight employment officers participated in the study, and limited data was collected on their background. This limits the possibility to make more elaborate analyses and generalize the results. Another circumstance that may have influenced the results is that when the aim of the study was presented to managers and participating employment officers, it was never made completely clear that the study aimed to specifically focus on aspects of gender and ethnicity. The reason for this was to avoid answers considered appropriate or self-censored answers that participants might otherwise have given. Possible discriminatory processes in the respondents' work can be considered to be a highly sensitive topic, and guarded responses might have seriously distorted the results. Although the aim of the study was partly kept secret, it cannot be entirely ruled out that the participants sensed that it was touching on a sensitive topic. This may have led to their being "on alert" and to some extent correcting their answers to the questions.

A further methodological limitation that should be kept in mind is that assessing cases by merely reading a short case description, as was done in the study by using vignettes, and making assessments without meeting clients face to face, is far from the standard procedure in employment officers' work with unemployed persons with disabilities. In light of this, there is a certain degree of uncertainty about whether the results obtained can be generalized to employment officers' daily work.

A further methodological limitation that should be taken into account when considering the possibility to make generalizations from the results is that the people in the vignettes for persons born in a foreign country were said to be from Iran. Iran is part of the Middle East, and the results for employment officers' assessments of employment prospects may be applicable to other groups from the same region. At the same time it should be noted that different immigrant groups have at least partially different conditions in the countries to which they immigrate. Most of Sweden's immigrants from Iran came in the 1970s and 1980s and have a relatively better position in the labor market than other groups from the Middle East who came at a later time. This may have implications for the possibility to generalize the study's results to other groups.